Moral Re-Armament by Javier Portella
Reprinted from Religious Movements Homepage with permission

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I. Group Profile

    1. Name: Moral Re-Armament
    2. Founder: Frank Nathan Daniel Buchman 1
    3. Date of Birth: June 4, 1878 2
    4. Birth Place: Pennsylvania, USA3
    5. Year Founded: 19384
    6. Sacred Texts: The Bible
    7. Cult or Sect:

The goals of the Religious Movements Homepage are to (1) provide resources for objective understanding, (2) encourage appreciation of religious diversity, and (3) promote religious tolerance. The opportunity to pursue these goals is diminished when the language employed in public discourse silently carries highly negative presuppositions. The concepts cult and sect have rather precise and technical meanings when used by social scientists who study religion, and they are employed free of normative or evaluative presuppositions. In popular discourse, the concepts usually imply highly negative connotations that cloud objective understanding while promoting prejudice (i.e. pre-judgment). The misunderstandings resulting from confusion of social science and popular meaning of these concepts has led us to the conclusion that the goals of this page are not well served by using the concepts cult and sect to identify specific groups profiled on these pages.

We do discuss the meaning of these concepts elsewhere on this site. Indeed, a major segment of the Religious Movements Homepage is devoted to the examination of cult controversies. Topics include popular culture and technical uses of the concepts cult and sect, the explosive issue of brainwashing or mind control, and an in depth examination of anti-cult and counter cult movements. We encourage readers to explore these resources.

Toward the end of promoting religious tolerance and appreciation of diversity, we encourage the use of concepts that are free of implicitly negative stereotyping. In place of cult and sect, we recommend concepts like new religious movements, religious movements, or, simply religious group.

    1. Size of Group: End of 1966, 4000 World Wide full time staff, 1000 in the U.S.A.5
    2. Quasi-religion: Refers to a group which deals with the sacred but can also be considered secular. It includes groups that are ambiguous with the issue of being sacred or secular in nature. They tend to reflect religious views and religious rituals and practices, but the group states that they are not religious.6

II. History of the Group

Moral Re-Armament is defined as the good road of an ideology inspired by God upon which all can unite. Catholic, Jew or Protestant, Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist and Confucianist - all find they can change, where needed, and travel along this good road together.7 The [beginnings] of Moral Re-Armament (MRA) [begin?] with the life of its founder Frank Buchman. Born in 1878, Buchman grew up in a conservative, prosperous home. He took his Bachelor's and Masters degrees at Muhlenberg College, and studied one year abroad during his graduate studies.

Buchman spoke of four landmarks in his early life:

      1. In 19088 as a young man, he was accused by a friend and fellow student at Mount Airy Seminary in Philadelphia of being ambitious. Stung by this he began to work in the most difficult part of Philadelphia, looking after underprivileged boys. Being a Lutheran pastor he founded the church of the Good Shepherd. A hospice sprang up of it, and eventually it took all of his time by three years. He moved in above a stable and found that the boys were difficult. He learned a lesson there, never to be shocked at other people's feelings and never laugh at other people's faults because you are just as funny yourself. When money was short the owners would cut down the food, angering Buchman. With this anger he quit his job, later falling ill because of it. Buchman went to a specialist where he got the advice to take a cold and hot bath to feel better. While he was clean outside he felt no better inside. He was hurt and he hated. He left the country and went to Europe. Finding himself traveling, he wound up back in England and up to Keswick. There he entered a small church in Cumberland where a woman was addressing 17 people. She spoke out of the sincerity of her heart on the power of the Cross. There he had a change of heart. The significance of the Cross which had been taught to him opened his eyes and he saw his own wrongs. After his spiritual experience when he was made man again he wrote to Philadelphia and apologized to the six men for his behavior. He came to know here he was as wrong as anyone else. He was in the need of change and he was the one to begin. His liberation from hatred of men who had selfishly stopped his constructive work in a poverty area of Philadelphia convinced him of God's power to change a man's motives. Since surrendering his will to God, his eagerness to share with other was imminent and started at once in 1908 with the son of some friends of his who went to Cambridge. All those who tried to reach him failed, but Buchman gave him his testimony which interested him and got them talking finally ending in the boy's repentance.
      2. In the years following he worked with students, faculty and staff at Penn State University, transforming not only life on campus, but working out the basic principles in the art of remaking men. It was during this time that he knew man needed the guidance of God.9 In 1909 he arrived at Penn State where he was asked to go by Dr. J.R. Mott, chairman of the Democratic National Committee of the U.S. to help with the demoralization of the university. Buchman was to become head of the Christian work there. He saw men as individuals and not as masses, much like a doctor sees the sick. This was a fundamental believe in the Oxford Group. The university was in trouble, students were on strike against their teachers and drunkenness had become fashionable. Three men held the key to life in college, the Dean, a popular student Blair Buch, son of a judge of the Supreme Court of Montana, and William Gilliland, who took care of the horses of a local doctor by day and smuggled liquour by night, nicknamed Bill Pickle. There he showed men with problems they were not alone and that he too had problems. This was able to connect him closer with others. The three were changed by Buchman, and the whole place was transformed, becoming a model for Christian education. With in three years 1200 men would voluntarily go to Bible Study. In between 1908 and 1915, Buchman began 'quiet time' to listen to what God wanted to say. During these years discipline was very important to him, especially absolute honesty, purity, unselfishness, and love. He was a living example to others like Bill Pickle.
      3. In 1912 in Canada while in a journey by train he had clear conviction that Christianity has a moral backbone,10 that a true Christian has to accept absolute moral standards and the courage to pursue them. Too many had Christian well-meanings, but professed Christ with their lips and compromised in their lives. A valid experience of faith carried deep moral change with it. Those who professed faith but lived filth, denied before men the power of God as a force in their nature.
      4. In 1921 invited to an international disarmament conference in Washington D.C. by a Senior British officer,11 he decided his life calling was to raise a force of men and women who would live and work united to answer the worldwide breakdown of morals in World War II. He saw then that the world was not just at the end of a great war but also at the start of a breakdown of civilization. Between 1921 and 1938 when MRA launched, Buchman traveled on every continent and raised a worldwide force of men and women of all walks in life committed to making a hate-free, fear-free, greed-free world. In the 1920's, Buchman got strong support of students in Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Oxford and Cambridge, some of which became the nucleus of his team, giving their all for the development of his work. Buchman wanted to create a network of revolutionary lives to change wrongs in society. He had no name for his growing group, but in 1929 in South Africa the press began calling his group of Oxford Rhodes scholars, The Oxford Group. For the next ten years this was the label for his group. During the 1930's his ideas spread rapidly and enlisted hundreds of thousands. In the 1930's his effort led to the awakening of the realities of Hitler and Stalin for many European countries, and in World War II led also to the strengthening of men's morals against the Nazi tyranny.

In 1915 he left Penn State and was given a chair in the Hartfort Theological Seminary where he was an extension lecturer. During this time he traveled a great deal to the east through China, Korea, Japan, and India. In 1915 he left the university work and spend a year abroad. He returned the following year only to return to the east from 1917 to 1919. It was here that he threw the first 'house party' in the summer of 1918 at Kuling, a central China resort, where men were able to meet socially and individually get to know one another.12 All sorts of men met from all walks of life like businessmen, professionals, missionaries, pastors, statesmen, and administrators talked and discussed the help that Buchman had provided in their lives. Later in 1921 - once he had gotten his calling in life - he was invited by two Anglican Bishops who felt their sons were without religion to visit Cambridge. This came to be the beginnings of the Oxford Group which was at first known as The First Century Christian Fellowship. In the Oxford Group confession and sharing tend to blend.13 Confession is needed to get over sin and sharing needed to strengthen others and bring each other closer. The movement started in 1921 moving slowly but surely. In 1926 the group moved to Oxford where many joined and felt they were able to open up their lives and tell the truth. From 1927 to 1928 the group expanded and many services and Bible studies were needed to keep up with the demand asked for. The name of the group came about when visiting South Africa to overcome the sundering effects of the acute nationalism.14 During this time there was an increase in the number of house parties, which were cosmopolitan. It was during this time also that the Oxford Group gave the foundation of Alcoholics Anonymous.15 The two founders of A.A. Bill Wilson and Robert Smith, found the strength to overcome alcohol with the help of the Oxford Group and its principles. Later the two also formed the famous 12 steps from the principles of the Oxford Group.

By spring of 1938, when Japan was in China and Hitler was threatening Czechoslovakia and Poland, Buchman laid the foundation of his work. When he voiced MRA, the world was ready and eager for it. Millions of the free world welcomed the idea of a military re-armament to check totalitarianism accompanied by a spiritual re-armament of men's hearts, minds, and wills if freedom was to survive.16 MRA was first conceived by Buchman in the spring of 1938 when walking on a wooded lane in the Black Forest. Buchman first spoke of Moral Re-Armament in East Ham Town Hall in London in May of 1938. His speech was widely reported in the world press and reached many nations. Buchman expressed how he had a history of seeing how corrupt man had become and in 1908 after his liberation, he was convinced that God's power could change a man and make a hate-free, fear-free, greed-free world. Buchman thought Moral and Spiritual Re-Armament. He said God was responsible for the idea, he was merely responsible for the growth. MRA was God's way of telling mankind how fallen human beings were and how through MRA the sanity, power, and spaciousness of God would break through to mankind. Realizing armed conflict could not decide the ideological issue in the world, MRA was launched. It stated the need of moral force to win a war and to build a just peace. Buchman's insight and action began to stir the nations to prepare for ideological conflict, what fascists and communists feared most. He roused up the patriotic forces.17 Nazi's were very against MRA, they banned its literature and saw the Cross of Christ opposing their cross the swastika. Buchman saw that ideological clarity and moral strength were needed to win the war. MRA claimed to provide an ideology for democracy in the struggle against communism.

MRA was first launched in the United States on June 4, 1939 at Constitution Hall in Washington D.C. During the early years of World War II, MRA became a force supporting the fighting of free nations, especially on the home front. It was said that what ever happens in Europe, Moral Re-Armament remains the only answer to recurrent crisis and the one foundation for reconciliation and permanent peace.

MRA tells people to remake the world, to change it from the corrupt ways in which it lies at the moment. For Buchman there were two kinds of men, men who change and those who refuse to do so. MRA grows by plays, radio, TV, meetings and conferences, and word of mouth. During this time MRA changed its focus from an individual to the masses by having mass propagandas. You are in MRA by the quality of life you lead. MRA is run and funded by people who can help in that which they can give, whether money or time. The professional staff works for free, and all are very dedicated individuals with deep feelings for a change in the world.

In 1942 with cooperation of the Governor of Michigan, MRA began to build building in historic Mackinac Island, that was to become the center for ideological training. In 1946, MRA purchased the Caux Palace Hotel in Switzerland for an ideological conference center with emphasis of Europe, Middle East and Africa. From 1947-1950 delegations from Germany and Japan,18 former enemies participated in the international conferences held there. During this time also delegations from Germany, Italy, France and Britain came to participate in talks on industrial unity, and found a new dimension of industrial unity and responsible citizenship. MRA's work after World War II was true reconciliation and reconstruction of Europe, focused in Caux. This was a healing atmosphere were refugees from the war could come and get away from their troubles.

Some of its achievements to name a few were the break up of the standoff between the management of National Airlines and the Airlines Pilots Association which threatened the future of the airline and caused concern throughout the industry in 1950,19 and during the years 1959 and 1960, MRA had a part in securing the independence of Cyprus through the senior Greeks, Turks, and British who came into contact with it in Europe and America.

There was post war expansions to Africa, Asia, and Latin America to spread the message of the group, but by this time problems had started to appear. In 1936 Buchman had gotten into political troubles by saying I thank heaven for a man like Adolf Hitler.20 This brought a negative image to the group and to forget the image given the group also happened to change the name to MRA. During these post war years MRA also experienced negative comments by the fact that many of the members attempted to obtain exemptions from the draft on grounds that they were lay evangelists,21 and obsession with sex,22 and a negative review by the church. MRA afterwards found itself in further problems when invited to take part in a Television Sunday program called 'About Religion' and failed to show up having others give their view on MRA. The negative comments given were disliked by MRA, but they failed to represent themselves well and appear not to be able to handle free debate and seemed anxious to avoid it. With all these problems the site of Michigan was sold.

The death of Buchman in 1961 brought a great downfall to MRA. He was decorated by eight countries, including France, Germany, Greece, Japan, China, and the Philippines for outstanding services done by Moral Re-Armament. The Moral Re-Armament had yet another tragedy four years later when Peter Howard who succeeded Buchman died suddenly as well. This led to a crisis for them having no leader and no plan of how to continue. By 1970 MRA seemed to cease to exist in the U.S. and was in decline in Britain.23 The U.S. office of MRA continue to survive with the program 'Up with People' which was founded in 1965 and was a troop of young vocals who sang on the views of MRA. They traveled around the world performing many shows but in 1968 the ties with MRA ruptured. MRA is only left with its publication of a monthly magazine called 'For a change'. Today, Frank Buchman, the Oxford Group, and MRA have been virtually forgotten, but their influence can still be traced today.

For Buchman peace was not just an idea, but people becoming different and that the true peace-makers where those willing to pay their price of it by giving their lives to bring millions under God's control. That was his life and his secret.24

III. Beliefs of the Group

The beliefs of the Oxford Group and later MRA have a fundamental basis in Christianity as Buchman had experienced in his life. The doctrine of the Oxford Group is built on two fundamental actions: Sharing and Guidance.25 The first one is Sharing which includes confession and being a witness. Confession is sharing one's sins with another man, because the Oxford Group believes that confession to a fellow man is an indication of true repentance. Sharing can be either privately to another member of the group or semi-publicly in a group meeting or house party. Sharing witness is giving testimony of one's own experiences and so relating to the troubles of another. Guidance is the leading by the Holy Spirit in all actions. God makes his plan known to us, and we must come to surrender to God's will. There is blessing in reading the Bible, and blessing in meditating upon it. It is through the Bible and prayer that we are able to know what God's Will is. 'Quiet time' is the moment when one tries to listen to what God says applicable to present needs. Guidance includes, Loyalty which pertains to people obeying the commands of God and completely surrendering to Christ. Whatever the Will of God might be one is to believe that where God guides, he provides. There are test to make sure one understands what God is telling them.

There are four tests so that one can discover what is the true guidance of God

      1. Does it go counter to the highest standard or belief which we already posses?
      2. Does it contradict the revelations which Christ has already made in or through the Bible?
      3. Is it absolutely honest, pure, unselfish, and loving?
      4. Does it conflict with our duties and responsibilities to others?

In case there is still uncertainty, one waits and continues in prayer and consults a trustworthy friend, who believes in the guidance of the Holy Spirit.26

The Oxford Group's aims are a new social order under the dictatorship of the spirit of God, making for better human relationships, for unselfish-cooperation, cleaner business and politics, and elimination of political, industrial, and racial antagonisms;27 and that all men in their ordinary professions and in their home should learn to live a life of perfect purity, honesty, and love and that many should join the ministry of the Church.

Buchman's program consisted of personal evangelism with emphasis upon:

      1. Both public and private confession of sin, with an emphasis upon sexual sin
      2. Reception of divine guidance during quiet time
      3. Complete surrender to this guidance
      4. The living of a guided life in which every aspect of one's actions, down to the choice of dinner entree, was controlled by God
      5. Practice of the Buchmanite four absolutes - purity, honesty, love, and unselfishness
      6. Making restitution to those one has harmed
      7. Carrying the message to those still defeated28

MRA follows the foundations given by the Oxford Group but goes a step further to try to include all religions on universal moral grounds. MRA aspires to be inter-denominational, domesticating itself within every description of ecclesiastical system. The aim is to give a whole new pattern for statesmanship and a whole new level of responsible thinking. MRA believes that it is doing what you have always known in your heart you ought to be doing - and doing it all day, everyday. MRA goes to the root of the problem - a change of heart. The goal is to have nations governed by men governed by God.

The Articles of Incorporation of MRA in the United States are:

      1. Riches, reputation, or rest have been for none of us the motives of association
      2. Our learning has been the truth as revealed by the Holy Spirit
      3. Our security has been the riches of God in Christ Jesus.
      4. Our unity as a world-wide family has been in the leadership of the Holy Spirit and our love for one another
      5. Our joy comes in our common battle for a change of heart to restore God to leadership
      6. Our aim has been establishment of God's Kingdom here on earth in the hearts and wills of men and women everywhere, the building of a hate-free, fear-free, greed-free world
      7. Our reward has been in the fulfillment of God's Will29

MRA is made to restore the absolute standards of right or wrong to the heart of individuals and the heart of nations. The World Rebuilt begins in our own heart and home, and then is carried across the nation. Buchman said Human nature can be changed. That is the root of the answer. National economies can be changed. That is the fruit of the answer. World history can be changed. That is the destiny of our age.

The following values summarize what the goals of the Moral Re-Armament movement are:

      1. Healing the wounds of history in order to break cycles of revenge, especially where cultures and civilizations meet;
      2. Strengthening the moral and spiritual foundations of democracy that guard against selfish interests, corruption and indifference;
      3. Encouraging care and responsibility in family life and personal relationships, in place of 'me-centeredness' and blame;
      4. Bringing hope in cities and communities by tackling the causes of poverty, discrimination and injustice; Fostering a commitment to ethics in business, industry and professional life, to help develop a global society that is just and sustainable;
      5. Forging networks among people from different faiths and cultures committed to work for reconciliation, justice and peace.30

IV. Issues and Controversies

The first incident to bring criticism to the group occurred in the early 1920's when Buchman was in England, and was to tour the world with the son of a wealthy American couple who was into excessive drinking.31 Buchman was to be the ideal tutor, chaperon, and guardian to the young fellow seeing as the young man showed to be responsive to Buchman. However, once they reached Paris, the nineteen year old fell in with some boys he knew of his own age and left Buchman. Buchman instead of communicating with the boy's parents simply left him in Paris and proceeded on his travels alone. He didn't repay the money given to him for the world tour and the young man was later to be found dead years later at an age in the thirties. This story though said to be of a reliable source is not believed since Buchman was a Lutheran Minister and a soul changer at that.

Another incident involved Buchman being banned from Princeton University in 1924,32 because the young Buchmanites were persistently crude in invasions of physical and spiritual privacy, had high-pressured attempts at life-changing, an obsessive and often impertinent harping on sin, especially sexual sin, and experiments in Guidance which have sometimes led students to neglect work and cut exams. His obsession with sexual sin is apparent here especially when he told the president of Princeton that 85% of the undergraduates were either sexually perverted or self-abusive. This problem surfaced once again in the 1950's and 1960's when a book written by Peter Howard, successor to Buchman, said 264 homosexuals were reported to have been purged from the American State Department. Many of them moved to New York and took jobs in the United Nations. Another occasion is when MRA in a 1963 advertisement in the New York Times attacked sexual deviants in high places who protect potential spies. With its obsession, MRA brought more criticism to itself than what it needed.

One of the biggest issues with MRA was the fabled Thank heaven for Hitler remark by Buchman.33 In this interview published in August 26, 1936, Buchman said I thank heaven for a man like Adolf Hitler, who built a front line of defense against the anti-Christ of Communism...Of course I don't condone everything the Nazis do. This statement brought criticism to Buchman as a Nazi lover and his statement of Himmler being a great lad got him the label of a pro-Nazi. This was the beginning of fall of MRA, due to a slip with the media and MRA inability to participate in an open debate.

MRA also got the label of a Chicken Hawk for its stance of not being pacifist,34 but yet refusing to participate in the draft of the war. Many of the MRA members sought exemption from the draft by being laymen of the group. This further brought an identity to the group of being all talk and no action.

Another issue with MRA was the double standard, that through its want of reaching all mankind it would turn on its religious foundations. In order to include all other religions which have morals founded in their beliefs, MRA would not be a religious movement. But, MRA had the problem of changing from a secular group to a religious group when it saw its opportunity to reach out to more people. MRA also had a problem with the Catholic Church, MRA was condemned by them. Though Buchman saw the well established and far-reaching religion as a great ally, the Roman Catholic Church did not allow the church to pray or worship with Christians of other allegiances.

Later there was a church assembly report in which they criticized The Social Thinking of MRA saying that

    1. MRA fails to take the nature of politics seriously emphasizing on unselfishness and love but with no concept of justice as a social quality
    2. MRA fails to make a profound enough analysis of the world's social problems, not all social problems are moral and so not cured by personal morality.
    3. MRA is Utopian, it does not seek to patch up the current systems but rather start a new civilization and society
    4. The MRA view of change is less than the Christian view of conversion, conversion is not simply to certain moral ideals, it also demands a certain view of reality
    5. MRA makes insufficient appeal to reason, one's purpose in MRA is to change and then become a witness to the rest of the world. Learning, teaching, and discussion don't hold a place.35

Links to Moral Re-Armament Web Sites

Moral Re-Armament - Initiatives for Change
This is the home page for the Moral Re-Armament group. There is a vast amount of information here with various links which give you great general information. Also a great amount of knowledge is given on how big the organization is and all the areas in which it has active programs.
http://www.mra.org.uk

Caux Moral Re-Armament
Another good site with some basic information. Gives a good overview of the MRA with most of the important facts. Most of the website though is dedicated to the actual caux center in which many conventions are held annually for the MRA, including the itinerary and a description of the place.
http://www.caux.ch

The Jaywalker Site
Contains the history and the connection between the MRA and Alcoholics Anonymous. It also has some general information on the MRA and how it got started, what is the Oxford Group, who is Frank Buchman and plenty of AA information. A good site for some quick information on what the MRA is about.
http://www.thejaywalker.com/pages/links.html

The Oxford Group Connection
An article containing information on the Oxford Group, Frank Buchman, and the beginning of the Alcoholics Anonymous through their influence.
http://www.recovery.org/aa/misc/oxford.html

| Profile | History | Beliefs | Issues and Controversies | Links | Bibliography |

V. Bibliography

Buchman, Frank. 1961.

Remaking the world: The Speeches of Frank N. D. Buchman. Blandford Press

Bufe, Charles. 1991.

Alcoholic Anonymous: Cult or Cure? Sharp Press

Crossman, R.H.S. 1934.

Oxford and the Groups. Basil Blackwell

Driberg, Tom. 1965.

The Mystery of Moral Re-Armament. Alfred A. Knopf

Entwistle, Basil; Roots, John. 1967.

Moral Re-Armament - What is it? Pace Publications

Greil, Authur L. 1993.

Religion and the Social Order. JAI Press Inc. Volume 3A, pages 153-172.

Henson, Herbert H. 1933.

The Oxford Group Movement. Oxford University Press

Howard, Peter. 1951.

The World Rebuilt. Duell, Sloan and Pearce.

Howard, Peter. 1962.

Frank Buchman's Secret. DoubleDay & Company, Inc.

Lean, Garth. 1985.

Frank Buchman: A life. Constable.

Murray, Robert H. 1972.

Group Movements Throughout The Ages. Books for Libraries Press

VI. References

    1. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.16
    2. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.16
    3. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.16
    4. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.51
    5. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.59
    6. Greil, Arthur L. Religion and the Social Order p.160
    7. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.13
    8. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.52
    9. Howard, Peter. Frank Buchman's Secret p.26
    10. Howard, Peter. Frank Buchman's Secret p.30
    11. Howard, Peter. Frank Buchman's Secret p.30
    12. Murray, Robert H. Group Movements Throughout The Ages p.312
    13. Henson, Herbert H. The Oxford Group Movement p.53
    14. Murray, Robert H. Group Movements Throughout The Ages p.329
    15. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.16
    16. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.56
    17. Howard, Peter. The World Rebuilt p.153
    18. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.20
    19. Entwistle, Basil. Moral Re-Armament - What is it? p.40
    20. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.23
    21. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.26
    22. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.29
    23. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.30
    24. Howard, Peter. Frank Buchman's Secret p.142
    25. Henson, Herbert H. The Oxford Group Movement p.49
    26. Henson, Herbert H. The Oxford Group Movement p.68
    27. Buchman, Frank. Remaking the world: Speeches of Frank Buchman p.4
    28. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.19
    29. Howard, Peter. The World Rebuilt p.155
    30. Moral Re-Armament homepage http://www.mra.org.uk/general/aims.html
    31. Driberg, Tom. The Mystery of Moral Re-Armament p.59
    32. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.19
    33. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.23
    34. Bufe, Charles. Alcoholics Anonymous: Cult or Cure p.26
    35. Driberg, Tom. The Mystery of Moral Re-Armament p.213

Created by Javier Portella
For Soc 452: Sociology of Religious Behavior
University of Virginia
Spring Term, 2000
Last modified: 04/25/00